Amalric of Jerusalem

Amalric (also spelled Amaury, Amalrich, or Amalricus; 1136 – 11 July 1174) was King of Jerusalem from 1163 until his death in 1174. The younger son of King Fulk and Queen Melisende, he succeeded his older brother, Baldwin III. Amalric's reign was characterized by his ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful military campaigns to conquer Fatimid Egypt, his strategic alliance with the Byzantine Empire, and significant domestic legal reforms. He is widely regarded by historians as the last strong and capable monarch of the Kingdom of Jerusalem before its prolonged decline and the eventual loss of the city to Saladin in 1187.

Early Life and Accession

Born in 1136, Amalric was the second son of Fulk of Anjou, King of Jerusalem, and Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem. Following his father's death in 1143, his older brother Baldwin III ascended to the throne, initially sharing power with their mother. During Baldwin's reign, Amalric was granted the County of Jaffa and, following the successful siege of Ascalon in 1153, the County of Ascalon as well.

When Baldwin III died childless in 1163, Amalric was the natural heir to the throne. However, his accession was initially opposed by the Haute Cour (High Court) of Jerusalem, led by the powerful nobility and the clergy. The opposition centered on his marriage to Agnes of Courtenay, which was challenged on the grounds of consanguinity (they were third cousins). To secure the crown, Amalric agreed to have his marriage annulled, though the High Court stipulated that his two surviving children from the union, Baldwin and Sibylla, would remain legitimate and retain their rights of succession. Amalric was subsequently crowned King of Jerusalem.

Marriages and Issue

Amalric's marital alliances were crucial to both the domestic stability and the foreign policy of the Crusader states. His first marriage to Agnes of Courtenay produced three children:

• Baldwin IV (1161–1185), who succeeded his father as king but suffered from leprosy.
• Sibylla (c. 1160–1190), who later became Queen of Jerusalem.
• Alix (died in childhood).

In 1167, seeking to solidify a military and political alliance with the Byzantine Empire, Amalric married Maria Komnene, the grandniece of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos. This union produced one daughter:

• Isabella I (1172–1205), who would also become Queen of Jerusalem and the matriarch of the kingdom's subsequent royal lines.

Foreign Policy and the Egyptian Campaigns

The defining feature of Amalric's foreign policy was his repeated attempts to conquer or establish a protectorate over Fatimid Egypt. Recognizing that the weak Fatimid Caliphate was vulnerable, Amalric understood that if the Zengid ruler of Syria, Nur ad-Din, gained control of Egypt, the Kingdom of Jerusalem would be surrounded and doomed.

Between 1163 and 1169, Amalric launched five major military expeditions into Egypt. In 1167, he achieved significant success, marching as far as Cairo and forcing the Fatimid vizier Shawar to pay a massive annual tribute. However, his subsequent campaigns were less successful. In 1168, he launched an unprovoked attack, sacking the city of Bilbeis and massacring its inhabitants, an act that alienated the native Coptic Christians who might have otherwise supported the Crusaders.

To counter the growing threat of Nur ad-Din's generals, Shirkuh and his nephew Saladin, Amalric formalized an alliance with the Byzantine Empire. In 1169, a joint Crusader-Byzantine force laid siege to the Egyptian port city of Damietta. The campaign ended in failure due to poor coordination, logistical shortages, and mutual distrust between the Franks and the Byzantines. By the end of 1169, Shirkuh had seized control of Egypt, and upon his death shortly after, Saladin succeeded him. Saladin's consolidation of Egypt and Syria realized Amalric's worst strategic fears, encircling the Crusader states.

Domestic Policy and Legal Reforms

Domestically, Amalric is best remembered for his legal and administrative reforms, most notably the Assise sur la ligece (Assize of Liegeance). Promulgated around 1166, this decree required all rear-vassals (vassals of the great barons) to swear direct homage and fealty to the king. This effectively bypassed the powerful lords of the realm, such as the Lords of Ibelin and the Princes of Galilee, and significantly strengthened royal authority by giving the king direct legal jurisdiction over a much larger portion of the nobility.

Amalric was also a patron of learning and the arts. He commissioned William of Tyre, the kingdom's foremost historian and later Archbishop of Tyre, to write a comprehensive history of the Crusader states. William described Amalric as a man of great intellect, well-read in law and theology, and deeply inquisitive, often questioning the clergy on matters of doctrine. However, William also noted that the king was physically stout, taciturn, and not a gifted public speaker.

Death and Legacy

In the summer of 1174, while planning yet another campaign to relieve a siege in the north, Amalric fell severely ill with dysentery. He died in Jerusalem on 11 July 1174, at the age of 38, and was buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Amalric's death marked a catastrophic turning point for the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son, Baldwin IV, whose leprosy rendered him unable to produce an heir and severely limited his physical capacity to rule. Furthermore, Amalric died just days after Nur ad-Din, leaving Saladin without a major rival in the Muslim world. Saladin quickly consolidated his power, ultimately defeating the Crusader army at the Battle of Hattin and capturing Jerusalem in 1187. Amalric's daughters, Sibylla and Isabella, would both inherit the throne during the kingdom's most turbulent and desperate years, navigating the political fallout of their father's unfinished geopolitical struggles.