Andrew Johnson

Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was an American politician who served as the 17th president of the United States from 1865 to 1869. He assumed the presidency following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, having been elected vice president on the National Union ticket. A Southern Democrat who ran with Lincoln to promote unity during the American Civil War, Johnson favored a lenient approach to Reconstruction, advocating for the quick restoration of the seceded states without federal protections for newly freed African Americans. His policies brought him into direct conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress, culminating in his historic impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868; he was ultimately acquitted in the Senate by a single vote.

Early Life and Career

Born into extreme poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, Johnson never attended formal schooling and was apprenticed as a tailor at a young age. He eventually moved to Greeneville, Tennessee, where he established a successful tailoring business and entered local politics. A compelling and populist orator, Johnson rose steadily through the political ranks, serving as an alderman, mayor, state representative, and state senator. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, where he served for a decade, and later acted as the Governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857. In 1857, he was elected to the U.S. Senate. Despite being a slaveholder and a staunch Southern Democrat, Johnson remained fiercely loyal to the Union when Tennessee seceded in 1861. This made him the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon secession, earning him the admiration of Northern politicians.

Vice Presidency

In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln, seeking to broaden his political base and appeal to War Democrats for his re-election campaign, selected Johnson as his running mate on the newly formed National Union Party ticket. They won the election decisively, and Johnson was inaugurated as vice president on March 4, 1865. His inaugural address, delivered while he was visibly intoxicated, was widely criticized and caused embarrassment for the administration. Just six weeks later, on April 15, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and Johnson immediately ascended to the presidency.

Presidency (1865–1869)

Johnson's presidency was overwhelmingly dominated by the issue of Reconstruction following the Civil War. He implemented his own form of "Presidential Reconstruction," which granted amnesty to most former Confederates and allowed Southern states to form new governments with minimal federal oversight. Under his lenient policies, these new state governments quickly enacted "Black Codes," which severely restricted the civil rights and economic opportunities of freedmen, essentially attempting to replicate the conditions of slavery.

In response, the Radical Republicans in Congress passed legislation to protect the rights of African Americans, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Freedmen's Bureau Bill. Johnson vetoed both measures, arguing they were unconstitutional and infringed upon states' rights, though Congress successfully overrode his vetoes. He also vehemently opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States. The clash between the executive and legislative branches defined his tenure, leading to a deeply polarized political environment and the implementation of "Congressional Reconstruction," which placed the South under military rule.

Impeachment

The conflict between Johnson and Congress reached its zenith over the Tenure of Office Act, a law passed in 1867 that restricted the president's power to remove certain officeholders without Senate approval. In February 1868, Johnson deliberately violated the act by dismissing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a Radical Republican ally who was sympathetic to Congress's Reconstruction efforts. In response, the House of Representatives impeached Johnson on 11 articles, primarily charging him with "high crimes and misdemeanors."

The impeachment trial was held in the Senate in the spring of 1868. Johnson's defense team argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and that his actions were intended to test the law in the courts. On May 16, 1868, the Senate voted on the first article of impeachment. The vote was 35 to 19 in favor of conviction, falling exactly one vote short of the two-thirds majority required to remove him from office. Subsequent votes on other articles yielded the exact same result, and Johnson was acquitted, remaining in office for the remainder of his term.

Post-Presidency and Death

After completing his term in 1869, Johnson returned to Tennessee. He made several unsuccessful attempts to return to national politics, including bids for the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives. Finally, in January 1875, the Tennessee legislature elected him to the U.S. Senate, making him the first and only former president to serve in the Senate. However, his tenure was brief; he suffered a stroke and died on July 31, 1875, near Elizabethton, Tennessee, at the age of 66. He was buried in Greeneville, with his body wrapped in an American flag and a copy of the U.S. Constitution placed under his head, per his wishes.

Legacy and Historical Reputation

Andrew Johnson is consistently ranked by historians and political scientists as one of the worst presidents in American history. His legacy is primarily defined by his fierce opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans and his obstruction of Congressional Reconstruction efforts. By allowing former Confederates to regain political power and failing to protect the newly freed slaves, his policies contributed significantly to the establishment of the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in the South. While his acquittal in the impeachment trial is often cited as a crucial precedent for maintaining the separation of powers and preventing the presidency from becoming subservient to Congress, his overall impact on the post-Civil War United States is widely viewed as deeply detrimental to the cause of racial equality and national healing.