Anaxarchus

Anaxarchus of Abdera (c. 380 – c. 320 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Democritean school who accompanied Alexander the Great on his eastern campaigns and is best remembered for his ethical teachings on happiness, his epistemological skepticism, and his stoic endurance during his execution.

Early Life and Philosophical Background

Born in Abdera, a city in Thrace renowned for producing prominent thinkers such as Democritus and Protagoras, Anaxarchus was a student of Metrodorus of Chios. Metrodorus was himself a disciple of Democritus, placing Anaxarchus firmly within the atomist tradition. However, unlike his predecessors who focused primarily on cosmology and physics, Anaxarchus shifted his philosophical focus toward ethics, epistemology, and the practical application of philosophy to achieve a tranquil life.

Relationship with Alexander the Great

Anaxarchus is perhaps most famous for his close association with Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied on his Asiatic expedition. He served as both a companion and an advisor to the Macedonian king. Historical accounts, particularly those preserved by Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius, depict a complex relationship. Anaxarchus was known to flatter Alexander, notably supporting the king's claim to divine status and encouraging the practice of proskynesis (ritual prostration), which alienated many traditional Macedonians and Greeks.

Despite this, Anaxarchus also acted as a candid critic. According to one famous anecdote, when Alexander was wounded in battle and a sycophant pointed out that the blood flowing from the wound proved he was a mortal and not a god (as the Iliad states that ichor flows in the veins of gods), Anaxarchus retorted that the blood indeed showed him to be mortal. In another well-known story, Anaxarchus attempted to console a weeping Alexander—who was reportedly crying because, having learned from Anaxarchus that there were infinite worlds, he had not yet conquered even one—by reminding him of the limits of human ambition.

Philosophy and Ethics

Anaxarchus earned the epithet Eudaimonikos (the Happy) due to his remarkable imperturbability and his teachings on the nature of happiness. His ethical system centered on the concept of adiaphoria (indifference) to external circumstances. He argued that true happiness (eudaimonia) could only be achieved by detaching oneself from the fluctuations of fortune, pain, and pleasure. This pursuit of mental tranquility (ataraxia) positioned him as a significant transitional figure between the atomism of Democritus and the later Hellenistic schools of Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism.

In the realm of epistemology, Anaxarchus exhibited a strong skeptical streak. He famously compared human sense perceptions to scene-paintings or dream states, suggesting that our senses do not reveal the true nature of reality but merely present illusions. By recognizing the unreliability of sensory input, he believed individuals could free themselves from false beliefs and the emotional disturbances they cause.

Death

Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Anaxarchus's fortunes took a tragic turn. During a voyage, he was shipwrecked and fell into the hands of Nicocreon, the tyrant of Salamis in Cyprus. Anaxarchus had previously offended Nicocreon at a banquet in Alexander's court by suggesting that the tyrant's tongue should be cut out.

Seeking revenge, Nicocreon ordered Anaxarchus to be executed by being pounded to death in a mortar with iron pestles. Demonstrating the very philosophical detachment he had taught throughout his life, Anaxarchus reportedly endured the torture without a cry of pain. His famous last words were, "Pound the bag of Anaxarchus, you do not pound Anaxarchus," signifying that his true self—his mind and soul—was entirely separate from his physical body and immune to physical suffering.

Legacy

Anaxarchus left a lasting impact on Hellenistic philosophy, most notably through his influence on Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of Pyrrhonism, who also accompanied Alexander's expedition. Pyrrho's development of radical skepticism and his pursuit of ataraxia were deeply informed by Anaxarchus's teachings on the unreliability of the senses and the necessity of indifference. In antiquity, Anaxarchus was remembered not only as a courtier of Alexander but as a profound thinker and a symbol of philosophical endurance, illustrating the power of the mind to transcend physical agony and external misfortune.