Bernard of Clairvaux

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090 – 20 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was a French abbot, mystical theologian, ecclesiastical reformer, and one of the most influential churchmen of the twelfth century. As founder and abbot of Clairvaux, he became the leading voice of the Cistercian Order and a major figure in papal politics, monastic reform, and the theology of the spiritual life. He was canonized in 1174 and declared a Doctor of the Church in 1830.

Early life

Bernard was born in 1090 at Fontaines-lès-Dijon in Burgundy, into a noble family. His father, Tescelin, was a knight; his mother, Aleth or Aletta, was known for piety. After a secular education in grammar and rhetoric, he resolved to enter monastic life. Around 1112 he joined the new and austere Cistercian monastery of Cîteaux, bringing with him about thirty companions, including several kinsmen.

Abbot of Clairvaux and monastic reform

In 1115, Bernard was sent by the abbot of Cîteaux, Stephen Harding, to found a daughter house in a valley known as the Val d'Absinthe. He named it Clairvaux. Bernard remained abbot there for the rest of his life. Under his leadership Clairvaux became the center of a vast monastic expansion; more than sixty daughter monasteries were founded from it during his abbacy.

Bernard promoted strict observance of the Rule of Benedict and Cistercian ideals of simplicity, manual labor, and liturgical austerity. He defended Cistercian practices in works such as the Apologia addressed to William of Saint-Thierry, which criticized what he saw as excessive decoration, elaborate food, and laxity in some Benedictine houses. His asceticism was severe and permanently affected his health, but his reputation for holiness and eloquence attracted many recruits and patrons.

Papal politics and church affairs

Bernard's influence extended far beyond the cloister. During the papal schism of 1130, he supported Innocent II against Anacletus II. At the Council of Étampes he helped secure recognition of Innocent, and he subsequently traveled to persuade rulers, including Lothair III and Henry I of England, to accept Innocent as pope. After Anacletus's death in 1138 the schism gradually ended, and Bernard worked to reconcile former supporters of Anacletus.

He became an adviser to popes and rulers. Pope Eugene III, a former monk of Clairvaux, was his disciple and frequently sought his counsel. Bernard also intervened against heretical movements in southern France, preaching against the teachings attributed to Henry of Lausanne in the 1140s. Although he could be severe in doctrinal disputes, he also opposed mob violence against Jewish communities during the preaching of the Second Crusade.

The Second Crusade

After the fall of Edessa in 1144, Pope Eugene III commissioned Bernard to preach a new crusade. In 1146 Bernard addressed a huge assembly at Vézelay, where King Louis VII of France took the cross. Later that year he persuaded Conrad III of Germany to join the expedition. Bernard's preaching made him the principal public face of the Second Crusade.

The crusade ended in military failure, most notably at the siege of Damascus in 1148. Bernard's reputation was damaged, and he faced criticism for having promised divine favor. He defended himself by arguing that the failure reflected the sins of the crusaders and the inscrutable judgment of God rather than a defect in the crusading ideal. The episode left a lasting shadow over his public career.

Theological controversies

Bernard was deeply suspicious of what he considered excessive rationalism in theology. His most famous conflict was with Peter Abelard, whose dialectical methods he believed endangered faith. At the Council of Sens in 1140, Bernard pressed charges against Abelard, and a set of propositions drawn from Abelard's teaching was condemned. Abelard appealed to Rome, but Pope Innocent II confirmed the condemnation. Abelard later found protection under Peter the Venerable at Cluny. Historians have debated whether Bernard's opposition was justified or whether he misunderstood Abelard's positions.

Bernard also challenged Gilbert of Poitiers at the Council of Reims in 1148 over trinitarian language. The council did not issue the full condemnation Bernard sought, and Gilbert retained his see. These disputes illustrate Bernard's role as a defender of traditional monastic theology against the emerging scholastic methods of the schools.

Writings and thought

Bernard left a large corpus of writings, including treatises, sermons, and more than five hundred letters. His works are marked by biblical imagery, rhetorical beauty, and a focus on the soul's movement toward God.

Major works include:

• Sermons on the Song of Songs (Sermones super Cantica Canticorum), an unfinished series of mystical homilies on the early chapters of the Song of Songs; they are among his most important spiritual writings.
• On Loving God (De diligendo Deo), which describes the degrees of love culminating in love of self for God's sake.
• On Grace and Free Choice (De gratia et libero arbitrio), a treatment of human freedom and divine grace.
• On Consideration (De consideratione), addressed to Pope Eugene III, on the duties and dangers of the papal office.
• In Praise of the New Knighthood (De laude novae militiae), written in support of the Knights Templar.
• Apologia to William of Saint-Thierry, defending Cistercian austerity against Cluniac luxury.

Bernard's theology is often described as monastic and mystical rather than scholastic. He emphasized humility, love, interior experience, and the soul's union with Christ. His bridal interpretation of the Song of Songs influenced later Western mysticism. He also wrote extensively on the Virgin Mary and was one of the most prominent Marian theologians of his age, though he opposed the introduction of the feast of Mary's Conception as then understood.

Death and veneration

Bernard died at Clairvaux on 20 August 1153. He was canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1174. In 1830 Pope Pius VIII declared him a Doctor of the Church. His traditional title Doctor Mellifluus, meaning the "honey-sweet doctor," reflects the eloquence of his writing and preaching. His feast day is 20 August.

Legacy

Bernard of Clairvaux shaped Cistercian identity and helped make the order one of the most dynamic monastic movements of the medieval church. His writings and sermons remained widely read throughout the Middle Ages and beyond. In Dante's Divine Comedy, Bernard appears as the final guide in the Paradiso, leading the poet to the vision of the Virgin Mary. He is often called the "last of the Fathers" because he combined patristic spiritual tradition with the reforming energies of the twelfth century. His legacy includes both admiration for his mystical insight and historical debate over his role in the Second Crusade and his opposition to Abelard.